An interesting way to distinguish between average citizens in the United States and Germany is to call out the word "leader" in a room full of Americans or the equivalent German word "Führer" in a room full of Germans. The differences become visible immediately. The Americans prick up their ears in anticipation, while the word "Führer" produces a look of consternation on German faces. The Americans, depending on their political inclinations, think of former presidents such as Franklin D. Roosevelt or John F. Kennedy. But in German the word "Führer" still evokes images of Adolf Hitler.

In the American presidential campaign, where the two parties will vote for their respective presidential candidates in the primaries beginning in early January, leadership is expected, not tolerated. In fact, say pollsters, Americans are yearning for leadership now more than ever, clearly a consequence of the current president's lack of success in the leadership department.

President George W. Bush may have led his country, but it has been in a direction that could best be described as circular. This makes the competition to succeed Bush in office primarily a competition to see who has the right leadership qualities. American voters are asking themselves questions like: What makes a president presidential? How much experience is necessary? How much naiveté can the country tolerate? What combination of toughness and compassion makes for an effective president?

Moving Forward Cautiously or Bounding Ahead?

Senator Barack Obama, a Democrat, promises "visionary leadership," while his adversary Hillary Clinton offers pragmatism. According to Clinton, her leadership qualities are based on experience, while his are based on ideas. Clinton prefers to move forward cautiously, while Obama favors bounding ahead. He perceives her as conventional, while she calls him naive.

Among the Republican candidates, "leadership" comes packaged with the qualifier "strong," which sounds as authoritarian as it's meant. All of the Republican contenders promise to replace Bush's weak leadership with a concentrated dose of inflexibility and toughness. Their campaign promises include increased military spending, tighter immigration controls on the Mexican border and a tougher approach to dealing with the roughly 12 million illegal immigrants already in the country. According to Republican candidate Rudy Giuliani, technology and money are not the problem. What has been missing so far, in his view, is the necessary willpower and strong leadership. The word "leadership" appears on more than 200 pages of Giuliani's book -- which is titled, not surprisingly, "Leadership."

Both parties agree that popularity does not necessarily make for a good leader. Americans have realized that a successful president doesn't have to be a good husband or humanitarian. George Washington was a great president and a slaveholder. Kennedy and Bill Clinton may have cheated on their wives, but they didn't deceive their country.

In Germany, the most combative chancellors have also been the most effective. Konrad Adenauer, known for his stubborn and cantankerous nature, was instrumental in shaping Germany's integration into the West, which some contemporaries described as a betrayal of German unity. Willy Brandt was the most controversial figure of his day, and yet today he is idolized. Gerhard Schröder was at his best -- and made himself thoroughly unpopular -- while pushing for reforms.

Democracy, American-style

In the United States, many of the presidential candidates have taken to wearing their apparent lack of popularity as a badge of honor. Hillary Clinton says that she has many scars from her countless political battles. Former New York Mayor Giuliani says that "If you are looking for perfection, you are not going to find it." However, he continues, "if you are looking for a leader who has been tested in times of crisis, a leader who is ready to lead right now ... I believe I am that leader.’’

In contrast to the German system, democracy in the United States does not translate into the rule of the people. Instead, it is seen as a selection process designed to promote the best and tone down the aspirations of the more moderately qualified. Democracy, as Americans see it, is intended to make leadership possible but not replace it.

Interestingly, the differences between Germans and Americans disappear when it comes to the business world. This is where German and American concepts of leadership are more alike. Among executives, traumatic experiences with trade unions and nationally-owned corporations have contributed to the word "leadership" acquiring a much more positive connotation. In their view, once Joe Schmo has the say in a company, decline cannot be far off.

This explains why the public has no qualms about the world of business working pretty much the same way as the world of professional sports. Every competitive sport needs at least a few players who walk onto the field intent on winning -- and are not just out for a stroll.